Develop code that declares, implements and/or extends interfaces and use the atOverride annotation.
The first time you look an interface, you'll probably think that it's like a class with just methods definitions:
interface Monitorable {
void monitor();
}
And for practical terms, you're right.
An interface is a data type that just defines (abstract) methods that one class must implement.
Although conceptually, it's more interesting than that, because this allows you to define what a class can do without saying how to do it. That's why it's said that an interface is a contract.
Any class that implements an interface must provide an implementation for all the methods of the interface, otherwise, the class has to be marked as abstract.
As a class is defined with the class keyword, an interface is defined with the interface keyword.
If a class wants to implement an interface, it has to specify it with the implements keyword.
public interface Monitorable {
public static final int ID = 0;
public abstract void monitor();
}
class Server implements Monitorable {
public void monitor() {
// Implementation code
}
}
Like a class, an interface has either public or default accessibility:
public interface PublicAccessInterface {
// ...
}interface DefaultAccessInterface {
// ...
}
Interfaces are abstract by default (you don't have to specify it):
public abstract interface PublicAccessInterface {
// This is the same as the definition above
}
This means two things:
final.The methods defined in an interface are by default PUBLIC and ABSTRACT, the compiler will treat them as such even if you don't specify it.
So even though you define an interface like this:
interface Monitorable {
void monitor();
void setup();
}
For the compiler, the interface will look like this:
interface Monitorable {
public abstract void monitor();
public abstract void setup();
}
That's the reason you must mark the method as public when it's implemented:
class Server implements Monitorable {
public void monitor() {
// Implementation
}
public void setup() {
// Implementation
}
}
Also, that's the reason that, if one or more of the interface's methods are not implemented, you must mark the class (and the methods) as abstract:
abstract class Server implements Monitorable {
public void monitor() {
// Implementation
}
public abstract void setup();
}
Fields declared in an interface are by default PUBLIC, STATIC, and FINAL. Like methods, the compiler will treat them as such even if you don't specify it.
This means that fields are CONSTANTS instead of VARIABLES:
interface Monitorable {
int ID = 0; // You have to assign a value at creation time
}
class Resource implements Monitorable {
void change() {
ID = 5; // This WON'T compile
}
}
This also means that the following declarations are all equivalent inside an interface:
int ID = 0;
public int ID = 0;
static int ID = 0;
final int ID = 0;
public static int ID = 0;
public final int ID = 0;
static final int ID = 0;
public static final int ID = 0;
So watch out for declarations that won't compile, like these:
interface Monitorable {
private int ID = 0; // It cannot be private
int TIMEOUT; // It's final, so you have to provide a value
}
There are two rules regarding inheritances and interfaces:
Implementing an interface is a type of inheritance. When a class implements an interface, we can use it like this to take advantage of polymorphism:
interface Monitorable {
void monitor();
}
class Disk implements Monitorable {
public void monitor() {
System.out.println("Monitoring Disk");
}
}
class Server implements Monitorable {
public void monitor() {
System.out.println("Monitoring Server");
}
}
public class Test {
public static void main(String args[]) {
Monitorable m = new Disk();
m.monitor();
m = new Server(); // Change implementation
m.monitor();
}
}
This is the output:
Monitoring Disk
Monitoring Server
A class cannot extend from more than one class, but it can implement more than one interface. You can see the reason with an example. Consider:
class Truck {
public void accelerate() {
System.out.println("Accelerating truck...");
}
}
class CompactCar {
public void accelerate() {
System.out.println("Accelerating compact car...");
}
}
If you could inherit from multiple classes:
class Car extends Truck, CompactCar {
public void run() {
accelerate();
// ...
}
}
Which accelerate() method would Java choose?
This is a problem that the designers of Java decided to avoid by not allowing multiple inheritance.
But what if we were using interfaces?
interface Truck {
void accelerate();
}
interface CompactCar {
void accelerate();
}
class Car implements Truck, CompactCar {
public void accelerate() {
System.out.println("Accelerating car"); }
// ...
}
As the interfaces don't provide an implementation, there's only one (Car's implementation) so there's no conflict and we avoid the problem altogether!
And if the methods have the same name but different parameters:
interface Truck {
void accelerate();
}
interface CompactCar {
void accelerate(int speed);
}
They're considered two different methods because the method's signature is different, so the implementing class has to implement both versions of the methods:
class Car implements Truck, CompactCar {
public void accelerate() {
// implementation
}
public void accelerate(int speed) {
// implementation
}
}
However, when the methods only differ in their return type, since the return type is not considered in the method's signature, the Java compiler will generate an error:
interface Truck {
void accelerate();
}
interface CompactCar {
int accelerate();
}
class Car implements Truck, CompactCar {
// Java will complain about duplicate methods
// and incompatible return types
public void accelerate() {
// implementation
}
public int accelerate() {
// implementation
}
}
Optionally, to make things clearer, we can use the @Override annotation.
interface CompactCar {
int accelerate();
}
class Car implements CompactCar {
@Override
public int accelerate() {
// implementation
}
}
@Override indicates that a method overrides a method declaration in a supertype, either in an interface or a parent class.
If the annotated method doesn't override or implement the method correctly, the compiler will generate an error.
This is the only function of the annotation. It's useful in cases like when there's a not-so-obvious error caused by a typo:
interface CompactCar {
int accelerate();
}
class Car implements CompactCar {
// Compiler will mark an error about method
// "acelerate" not overriding or implementing something
@Override
public int acelerate() {
// implementation
}
}
Finally, an interface can only extend other interfaces.
interface Monitorable {
void monitor();
}
interface Pluggable {
void plug();
}
interface Resource extends Monitorable, Pluggable {
void printInfo();
}
A non-abstract class implementing Resource, must implement all the methods of the three interfaces:
class Disk implements Resource {
public void monitor() {
// implementation
}
public void plug() {
// implementation
}
public void printInfo() {
// implementation
}
}
Assume we have an interface like this:
interface Processable {
void processInSequence();
}
And an implementation:
class Task implements Processable {
public void processInSequence() {
System.out.println("Processing in sequence");
}
}
We know that when a class implements an interface, unless the class is marked as abstract, it has to implement ALL the methods of that interface.
So if we add another method to Processable, for example:
interface Processable {
void processInSequence();
void processInParallel();
}
We have to update the class to avoid a compilation error:
class Task implements Processable {
public void processInSequence() {
System.out.println("Processing in sequence");
}
public void processInParallel() {
System.out.println("Processing in parallel");
}
}
That was easy. But think about the following:
Processable?These are real problems, sometimes not easy to solve.
However, Java 8 gives us default methods. We don't have to provide implementations for them because they are non-abstract methods.
In other words, interfaces now allow methods with a BODY. And this is not as simple as it sounds.
The main reason for adding default methods to interfaces was to support interface evolution, to add new functionality to interfaces and at the same time, ensuring compatibility with the code written for older versions.
There are two other side effects worth mentioning:
However, now that interfaces can provide behavior, the difference with abstract classes is not very clear in some cases. There are still two significant differences:
Default methods come with many rules, especially regarding inheritance. But let's start with their syntax.
interface Processable {
void processInSequence();
default void processInParallel() {
/** Default implementation goes here */
}
}
An interface can have any number of abstract and default methods.
All methods with the keyword default must have a body.
Default methods are public implicitly, just as any other method of an interface.
By making processInParallel() a default method, the implementing class gets it automatically. Here's the complete example:
interface Processable {
void processInSequence();
default void processInParallel() {
System.out.println("Processing in parallel");
}
}
public class Task implements Processable {
public void processInSequence() {
System.out.println("Processing in sequence");
}
public static void main(String args[]) {
Task t = new Task();
t.processInSequence();
t.processInParallel(); // It compiles just fine
}
}
This is the most simple scenario, where the implementing class inherits the default method.
Before presenting more complex scenarios, let's see what the restrictions are when using default methods.
Default methods cannot be final.
If a method is final, it cannot be overridden by the implementing classes, which doesn't favor the primary objective of default methods.
Default methods cannot be synchronized.
This was a deliberate decision by the designers of the language. If a method is made synchronized in the interface, it would mean that all the implementing classes would inherit this behavior. But this decision should belong to the implementation; the interface has no reasonable basis for assuming what the synchronization policy should be.
Default methods are always public.
Like other methods of an interface. Contrast this with an abstract class, where you can choose the visibility of the method.
You cannot have default methods for the Object's class methods.
An interface cannot provide default implementations for:
boolean equals(Object o)
int hashCode()
String toString()
If an interface has methods with those signatures, the compiler will throw an error. The reason is that those methods are all about the object's state. Since interfaces do not have a state, these methods should be in the implementing classes.
And now, to the more complex scenarios.
Classes always WIN over interfaces. If a class overrides a default method, the class method will be the one used. For example:
interface Processable {
void processInSequence();
default void processInParallel() {
System.out.println("Default parallel");
}
}
public class Task implements Processable {
public void processInSequence() {
System.out.println("Processing in sequence");
}
public void processInParallel() {
System.out.println("Class parallel");
}
public static void main(String args[]) {
Task t = new Task();
t. processInParallel();
}
}
The output would be:
Class parallel
This is true even if the class redefines the default method as abstract:
interface Processable {
void processInSequence();
default void processInParallel() {
System.out.println("Default parallel");
}
}
// Class Task has to be abstract
abstract class Task implements Processable {
public void processInSequence() {
System.out.println("Processing in sequence");
}
public abstract void processInParallel();
}
If for some reason, you need to call the default implementation of the method, you can do it with the name of the interface followed by the keyword super:
public void processInParallel() {
Processable.super.processInParallel();
}
This only works with default methods. Calling a non-default method in this way will result in a compilation error. Also, super must be used with a direct super interface of the class.
Another scenario related to this rule is when an inherited instance method from a class overrides a default interface method:
interface Processable {
default void processInParallel() {
System.out.println("Default parallel");
}
}
class Process {
public void processInParallel() {
System.out.println("Class parallel");
}
}
public class Task
extends Process implements Processable {
public static void main(String args[]) {
Task t = new Task();
t.processInParallel();
}
}
The output is:
Class parallel
The method processInParallel() returns the string "Class parallel" since the class Task inherits the method processInParallel() from the class Process, which overrides the default method of the same name in the interface Processable.
More specific interfaces (or classes) always WIN over less specific ones. The default methods of the shallower interfaces in an inheritance hierarchy will be used. For example:
interface Processable {
void processInSequence();
default void processInParallel() {
System.out.println("Processable parallel");
}
}
interface Parallelizable extends Processable {
default void processInParallel() {
System.out.println("Parallelizable parallel");
}
}
public class Task implements Parallelizable {
public void processInSequence() {
System.out.println("Processing in sequence");
}
public static void main(String args[]) {
Task t = new Task();
t.processInParallel();
}
}
The output would be:
Parallelizable parallel
The interface Parallelizable inherits the default method processInParallel(), but since it redefines the method when Task implements it, its implementation is the one called.
If Parallelizable defined processInParallel() as abstract:
interface Parallelizable extends Processable {
abstract void processInParallel();
}
Then Task would have to implement the method (to not become an abstract class):
public class Task implements Parallelizable {
public void processInSequence() {
System.out.println("Processing in sequence");
}
public void processInParallel() {
System.out.println("Task parallelizable");
}
public static void main(String args[]) {
Task t = new Task();
t.processInParallel();
}
}
The output would be:
Task parallelizable
Classes can implement multiple interfaces. What happens when two interfaces have the same default method? Which one does the implementing class will choose? For example:
interface Processable {
void processInSequence();
default void processInParallel() {
System.out.println("Processable parallel");
}
}
interface Parallelizable {
default void processInParallel() {
System.out.println("Parallelizable parallel");
}
}
public class Task
implements Processable, Parallelizable {
public void processInSequence() {
System.out.println("Processing in sequence");
}
public static void main(String args[]) {
Task t = new Task();
t.processInParallel();
}
}
It turns out that the result is a compiler error:
Duplicate default methods named processInParallel with the parameters () and () are inherited from the types Parallelizable and Processable.
The compiler doesn't know which to choose, so it generates an error. In this case, Task has to provide an implementation (honoring the previous rule of more specific interfaces (or classes) always wins over less specific ones) to override the interface default methods and solve the issue:
public class Task
implements Processable, Parallelizable {
public void processInSequence() {
System.out.println("Processing in sequence");
}
public void processInParallel() {
System.out.println("Task parallelizable");
}
public static void main(String args[]) {
Task t = new Task();
t.processInParallel();
}
}
And now, the output would be:
Task parallelizable
Of course, we can always call a default implementation with:
public void processInParallel() {
Processable.super.processInParallel();
}
interface Processable {
static void log() {
/** Implementation goes here */
}
}
Static methods in interfaces are defined just like static methods in classes, with the keyword static.
Static methods are public implicitly, just as any other method of an interface.
An interface can have any number of static methods.
Whenever we refer to something static, we mean something that belongs to a class, not to a particular instance or object of that class. Static methods on interfaces follow the same concept; they belong to the interface where they are declared.
They were added to assist default methods and to better organize helper methods, because generally, helper or utility methods are defined in another class (like java.utils.Collections), instead of where they naturally belong.
For example, the java.util.Comparator interface defines the static method:
static <T> Comparator<T> comparingInt(ToIntFunction<? super T> keyExtractor)
Used by the default method:
default Comparator<T> thenComparingInt(ToIntFunction<? super T> keyExtractor)
Interface static methods are not inherited, you must prefix the method with the interface name:
interface Parallelizable {
static void log(String s) {
System.out.println(s);
}
default void processInParallel() {
log("Parallelizable parallel");
}
}
public class Task implements Parallelizable {
public static void main(String args[]) {
Task t = new Task();
t.processInParallel();
// t.log("The end"); Doesn't compile
// Task.log("The end"); Doesn't compile either
Parallelizable.log("The end"); // Compiles!
}
}
The output is:
Parallelizable parallel The end
abstract) methods that one class must implement.interface keyword. If a class wants to implement an interface, it has to specify it with the implements keyword.public or default accessibility and is abstract by default.public and abstract. The compiler will treat them as such even if you don't specify it.public, static, and final. Like methods, the compiler will treat them as such even if you don't specify it.@Override indicates that a method overrides a method declaration in a supertype, either in an interface or a parent class.default keyword, and they must have a body. The implemented classes can use and optionally redefine these methods.public, but not static.synchronized or final.Object class methods: boolean equals(Object o);
int hashCode();
String toString();NameOfTheInteface.super.defaultMethod();static methods in interfaces so they can contain helper or utility methods.static keyword, and they also must have a body.static methods in classes, so they are not inherited.NameOfTheInteface.staticMethod();1. Given:
interface A {
default int aMethod() {
return 0;
}
}
public class Test implements A {
public long aMethod() {
return 1;
}
public static void main(String args[]) {
Test t = new Test();
System.out.println(t.aMethod());
}
}
What is the result?
A. 0
B. 1
C. Compilation fails
D. An exception occurs at runtime
2. Given:
interface B {
default static void test() {
System.out.println("B test");
}
}
public class Question_4_2 implements B {
public void test() {
System.out.println("Q test");
}
public static void main(String[] args) {
Question_4_2 q = new Question_4_2();
q.test();
}
}
What is the result?
A. B test
B. Q test
C. Compilation fails
D. An exception occurs at runtime
3. Given:
interface C {
default boolean equals(C obj) {
return obj == this;
}
}
public class Question_4_3 implements C {
public static void main(String[] args) {
Question_4_3 q = new Question_4_3();
System.out.println(q.equals(q));
}
}
What is the result?
A. true
B. false
C. Compilation fails
D. An exception occurs at runtime
4. Given:
interface D {
default void print() {
System.out.println("D");
}
}
interface E extends D {
default void print() {
System.out.println("E");
}
}
public class Question_4_4 implements E {
public void print() {
E.super.print();
}
public static void main(String[] args) {
Question_4_4 q = new Question_4_4();
q.print();
}
}
What is the result?
A. D
B. E
C. D and then E
D. Compilation fails
E. An exception occurs at runtime
5. Given:
interface F {
static void test() {
System.out.println("F test");
}
}
public class Question_4_5 implements F {
public void test() {
System.out.println("Q test");
}
public static void main(String[] args) {
F q = new Question_4_5();
q.test();
}
}
What is the result?
A. F test
B. Q test
C. Compilation fails
D. An exception occurs at runtime
6. Given:
interface G {
default void doIt() {
System.out.println("G - Do It");
}
}
interface H {
void doIt();
}
public class Question_4_6 implements G, H {
public void doIt() {
System.out.println("Do It");
}
public static void main(String[] args) {
Question_4_6 q = new Question_4_6();
q.doIt();
}
}
What is the result?
A. G - Do It
B. Do It
C. Compilation fails
D. An exception occurs at runtime